I managed to find the server logs that described the login error, and I found BadFunctionCallException: creationTime is not a valid attribute
The only thing I had changed was my ownCloud server container, and NOT my Redis or MariaDB containers. So, after removing and recreating the ownCloud container, when I was still having problems, I concluded that the upgrade had migrated something in one of these containers, probably MariaDB.
I entered the MariaDB container, logged into the database, and selected the ownCloud database. Using SELECT * FROM oc_accounts LIMIT 1;, I could see a column called creation_time. I took a guess that creation_time was new, added during the upgrade. So I deleted the column with: alter table oc_accounts drop column creation_time;